Tag: mechanization

New publications: Gender differentiated small-scale farm mechanization in Nepal hills

Written by Emma Orchardson on April 30, 2020. Posted in Publications.

The use of small-scale mechanization in smallholder farming systems in South Asia has increased significantly in recent years. This development is a positive step towards agricultural transformation in the region. Small-scale mechanization is now seen as a viable option to address labor scarcity and offset the impact of male outmigration in rural areas, as well as other shortages that undermine agricultural productivity.

However, most existing farm mechanization technologies are either gender blind or gender neutral. This is often to the detriment of women farmers, who are increasingly taking on additional agricultural work in the absence of male laborers. Minimizing this gender disparity among smallholders has been a key concern for policymakers, but there is little empirical literature available on gender and farm mechanization.

A new study by researchers at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) addresses this gap, using data from six districts in the highlands of Nepal to assess the impact of the gender of household heads on the adoption of mini-tillers — small machinery used to prepare and cultivate land before planting.

Their findings reveal that, when it comes to mini-tiller adoption, there is a significant gender gap. Compared to male-headed households, explain the authors, the rate of adoption is significantly lower among female-headed households. Moreover, they add, when male- and female-headed households have similar observed attributes, the mini-tiller adoption rate among the food insecure female-headed households is higher than in the food secure group.

The authors argue that this gender-differentiated mini-tiller adoption rate can be minimized in the first instance by increasing market access. Their findings suggest that farm mechanization policies and programs targeted specifically to female-headed households can also help reduce this adoption gap in Nepal and similar hill production agroecologies in South Asia, which will enhance the farm yield and profitability throughout the region.

Read the full article in Technology in Society:
Gender differentiated small-scale farm mechanization in Nepal hills: An application of exogenous switching treatment regression.

Women farmers test a mini tiller on farmland in Ramghat, Nepal. (Photo: CIMMYT)

See more recent publications from CIMMYT researchers:

Effect of missing values on variance component estimates in multienvironment trials. 2019. Aguate, F.M., Crossa, J., Balzarini, M. In: Crop Science v. 59, no. 2, p. 508-517.
The relative efficiency of two multistage linear phenotypic selection indices to predict the net genetic merit. 2019. Ceron Rojas, J.J., Toledo, F.H., Crossa, J. In: Crop Science v. 59, no. 3, p. 1037-1051.
High-density mapping of triple rust resistance in barley using DArT-Seq markers. 2019. Dracatos, P.M., Haghdoust, R., Singh, R.P., Huerta-Espino, J., Barnes, C.W., Forrest, K.L., Hayden, M., Niks, R.E., Park, R.F., Singh, D. In: Frontiers in Plant Science v. 10, art. 467.
Modernising breeding for orphan crops: tools, methodologies, and beyond. 2019. Ribaut, J.M., Ragot, M. In: Planta v. 250, no. 3, p. 971-977.
An update of recent use of Aegilops species in wheat breeding. 2019. Kishii, M. In: Frontiers in Plant Science v. 1., art. 585.
Genetics of greenbug resistance in synthetic hexaploid wheat derived germplasm. 2019. Crespo-Herrera, L.A., Singh, R.P., Reynolds, M.P., Huerta-Espino, J. In: Frontiers in Plant Science v. 10, art. 782.
Genetics for low correlation between Fusarium head blight disease and deoxynivalenol (DON) content in a bread wheat mapping population. 2019. Xinyao He, Dreisigacker, S., Singh, R.P., Singh, P.K. In: Theoretical and Applied Genetics v. 132, no. 8, 2401-2411.
Studying selection criteria and genetic variability for improvement of indigenous maize in Pakistan. 2019. Maqbool, M.A., Aslam, M., Issa, A.B., Khan, M. S., Saeed, M.T. In: Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences v. 56, no. 4. 819-827.
Genome wide association study of karnal bunt resistance in a wheat germplasm collection from Afghanistan. 2019. Gupta, V., Xinyao He, Kumar, N., Fuentes Dávila, G., Sharma, R.K., Dreisigacker, S., Juliana, P., Ataei, N., Singh, P.K. In: International Journal of Molecular Sciences v. 20, no. 13, art. 3124.
Does caste determine farmer access to quality information? 2019. Krishna, V.V., Aravalath, L., Vikraman, S. In: PLoS One v. 14, no. 1, art. e0210721.
Estimation of physiological genomic estimated breeding values (PGEBV) combining full hyperspectral and marker data across environments for grain yield under combined heat and drought stress in tropical maize (Zea mays L.). 2019. Trachsel, S., Dhliwayo, T., Gonzalez-Perez, L., Mendoza Lugo, J.A., Trachsel, M. In: PLoS One v. 14, no. 3, art. e0212200.
Genetic diversity and linkage disequilibrium using SNP (KASP) and AFLP markers in a worldwide durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var durum) collection. 2019. Roncallo, P.F., Beaufort, V., Larsen, A.O., Dreisigacker, S., Echenique, V. In: PLoS One v. 14, no. 6, art. e0218562.
The abandonment of maize landraces over the last 50 years in Morelos, Mexico: a tracing study using a multi-level perspective. 2019. McLean R., F.D., Camacho Villa, T.C., Almekinders, C., Pè, M.E., Dell’Acqua, M., Costich, D.E. In: Agriculture and Human Values v. 36, no. 4, 651-668.
Molecular screening of Zymoseptoria tritici resistance genes in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) using tightly linked simple sequence repeat markers. 2019. Mekonnen, T., Haileselassie, T., Kaul, T., Sharma, M., Abeyo Bekele Geleta, Kassahun, T. In: European Journal of Plant Pathology v. 155, no. 2, p. 593-614.
Bacterial diversity based on a 16S rRNA gene amplicon data set from a high-altitude crater lake and glacial samples of the Iztaccihuatl volcanic complex (Mexico). 2019. Calvillo-Medina, R.P., Reyes‐Grajeda, J.P., Moreno-Andrade, V.D., Barba‐Escoto, L., Bautista‐de Lucio, V.M., Jones, G.H., Campos‐Guillen, J. In: Microbiology Resource Announcements v. 8, no. 12, art. e01636-18art. e01636-18art. e01636-18art. e01636-18art. e01636-18art. e01636-18.
Mitigating the twin problems of malnutrition and wheat blast by one wheat variety, ‘BARI Gom 33’, in Bangladesh. 2019. Hossain, A., Mottaleb, K.A., Farhad, M., Barma, N.C.D. In: Acta Agrobotanica v. 72, no. 2, art. 1775.
Sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence III: benchmarking retrieval methods and sensor characteristics for proximal sensing. 2019. Cendrero-Mateo, M.P., Wieneke, S., Damm, A., Alonso, L., Pinto Espinosa, F., Moreno, J., Guanter, L., Celesti, M., Rossini, M., Sabater, N., Cogliati, S., Julitta, T., Rascher, U., Goulas, Y., Aasen, H., Pacheco-Labrador, J., Mac Arthur, A. In: Remote Sensing v. 11, no. 8, art. 962.
Yield gains and associated changes in an early yellow bi-parental maize population following genomic selection for Striga resistance and drought tolerance. 2019. Badu-Apraku, B., Talabi, O., Fakorede, M. A. B., Fasanmade, Y., Gedil, M., Magorokosho, C., Asiedu, R. In: BMC Plant Biology v. 9, art. 129.
Understanding factors associated with agricultural mechanization: a Bangladesh case. 2019. Aryal, J.P., Rahut, D.B., Maharjan, S., Erenstein, O. In: World Development Perspectives v. 13, p. 1-9.
Wealth, education and cooking-fuel choices among rural households in Pakistan. 2019. Rahut, D.B., Ali, A., Mottaleb, K.A., Aryal, J.P. In: Energy Strategy Reviews v. 24, p. 236-243.
Genome-wide association study and genomic prediction analyses of drought stress tolerance in China in a collection of off-PVP maize inbred lines. 2019. Nan Wang, Bojuan Liu, Xiaoling Liang, Yueheng Zhou, Song, J., Jie Yang, Hongjun Yong, Jianfeng Weng, Degui Zhang, Mingshun Li, Nair, S.K., San Vicente, F.M., Zhuanfang Hao, Zhang, X, Xinhai Li. In: Molecular Breeding v. 39, no. 8, art. 113.
Wildlife trade and consumer preference for species rarity: an examination of caged-bird markets in Sumatra. 2019. Krishna, V.V., Darras, K., Grass, I., Mulyani, Y.A., Prawiradilaga, D.M., Tscharntke, T., Qaim, M. In: Environment and Development Economics v. 24, no. 4, p. 339-360.
Correction to: high-throughput method for ear phenotyping and kernel weight estimation in maize using ear digital imaging. 2019. Makanza, R., Zaman-Allah, M., Cairns, J.E., Eyre, J., Burgueño, J., Pacheco Gil, R. A., Diepenbrock, C., Magorokosho, C., Amsal Tesfaye Tarekegne, Olsen, M., Prasanna, B.M. In: Plant methods v. 15, art. 52.
Tradeoffs between groundwater conservation and air pollution from agricultural fires in northwest India. 2019. Singh, B., McDonald, A., Srivastava, A., Gerard, B. In: Nature Sustainability v. 2 no. 7, p. 580-583.

Kidane Mengistu is much happier with the threshing service she gets from the service provider. (Photo: Simret Yasabu/CIMMYT)

Shared responsibilities and equal economic benefits

Written by Rodrigo Ordóñez on March 25, 2020. Posted in Features.

Women play a crucial role in Ethiopian agriculture. A significant portion of their time is spent in the field helping their male counterparts with land preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting. Despite this, women face barriers in accessing productive resources and gaining financial benefits.

In 2015 and 2016, there was a 9.8% gap in farming plot productivity between woman- and man- managed farms in Ethiopia, which translated to a $203.5 million loss in the country’s GDP. Access to mechanization services though service provision could contribute to decreasing this gap.

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the German development agency GIZ have been testing service provision models in different areas of Ethiopia to expand small-scale agricultural mechanization that would benefit both men and women.

Zewdu Tesfaye, a smallholder farmer and mother of two, lives in the Amba Alaje district of the Tigray region. Two years ago, she paid $8 to become a member of the Dellet Agricultural Mechanization Youth Association (DAMYA), established to provide agricultural mechanization services in the area.

Zewdu Tesfaye drives a two-wheel tractor to the irrigation area. (Photo: Simret Yasabu/CIMMYT)

Along with other members, Tesfaye provides various services to farmers in her area that need assistance. “I take part in every assignment the group is tasked with. I drive the two-wheel tractor and I support during threshing and irrigation,” she says.

Tesfaye has now secured a job providing these services and has started earning income. In November 2019, she received $72 from the association’s threshing services, which she saved in the bank. If women are given equal opportunities and equal access to resources, she says, they have the capacity to do anything that will empower themselves and change their families’ lives.

DAMYA currently has 12 members — eight men and four women — and all responsibilities are shared, with benefits divided equally. “Agricultural mechanization is an area less accessible to women,” explains group chair Alemayehu Abreha. “Thus, we highly encourage and motivate our women members to maximize their potential and invite other women to witness that everything is possible.”

Belay Tadesse, regional advisor for GIZ’s Integrated Soil Fertility Management project, explained that the initiative aims to benefit both women and men as service providers and recipients. Various trainings are provided for women, so that they are well acquainted with the machinery, as well as with the business aspects of each model. Events and other activities are also helping spread awareness, to attract and encourage more women to get involved in similar jobs, adds Tadesse.

Belay Tadesse shows young women from Dellet how the water should flow. (Photo: Simret Yasabu/CIMMYT)

In the Gudiya Billa district, located about 220 kilometers away from Addis Ababa, the introduction of the two-wheel tractor has been a blessing for many farmers in the area, especially women. For Kidane Mengistu, farmer and mother of six, harvesting season used to bring an added strain to her already existing chores. Now everything has changed. Through the new service provision model, Mengistu is able to get help with her daily tasks from Habtamu, a farmer professionally trained in agricultural mechanization. “We now hire Habtamu, a service provider, to get different services like threshing,” she says. “He does the job in few hours with reasonable amount of payment. This has given me ample time to spend on other household chores.”

Maize, sorghum and teff are the three main crops grown on Mengistu’s eight hectares of land. With the introduction of the two-wheel tractor and service provision model, she and Habtamu have been able to begin potato irrigation on two hectares — Mengistu provides the land while Habtamu provides and operates the water pump — and together they share costs and income. Mengistu says she and her family have seen firsthand the benefits of the two-wheel tractor and plan to purchase their own someday.

New publication: Scaling agricultural mechanization services in smallholder farming systems

Written by Emma Orchardson on February 27, 2020. Posted in Publications.

A new study by researchers at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) assesses how three large projects have scaled service provision models for agricultural mechanization in Bangladesh, Mexico and Zimbabwe. In what is possibly the first cross-continental assessment of these issues to date, the study gauges the extent to which each initiative fits with the needs of its environment to enable sustained machinery use by farmers at a large scale, while acknowledging the influence of project design on outcomes.

Each of the projects has made considerable progress towards increasing the adoption of agricultural machinery in their target area. In Bangladesh and Mexico, mechanization service providers and machinery dealers have been able to strengthen their business cases because the projects use geospatial and market data to provide targeted information on client segmentation and appropriate cropping systems. In Zimbabwe, CIMMYT and partners have worked to strengthen the market for two-wheeled tractors by creating demand among smallholders, developing the capacity of existing vocational training centers, and spurring private sector demand.

However, despite these initial successes, it can often be difficult to gauge the sustained change and transformative nature of such interventions.

Applying a scaling perspective

To address this challenge, research teams held a series of workshops with project partners in each country, including regional government representatives, national and local private sector stakeholders, and direct project collaborators such as extension agents and site managers. Participants were asked to answer a series of targeted questions and prompts using the Scaling Scan, a user-friendly tool which facilitates timely, structured feedback from stakeholders on issues that matter in scaling. Responses given during this exercise allowed project designers to analyze, reflect on, and sharpen their scaling ambition and approach, focusing on ten scaling ‘ingredients’ that need to be considered to reach a desired outcome, such as knowledge and skills or public sector governance.

Local service provider uses a bed planter for crop production in Horinofolia, Bangladesh. (Photo: Ranak Martin)

“Although at first sight the case studies seem to successfully reach high numbers of end users, the assessment exposes issues around the sustainable and transformative nature of the project interventions,” says Lennart Woltering, a scaling advisor at CIMMYT.

The added value of this approach, explains Jelle Van Loon, lead author and CIMMYT mechanization specialist, is that lessons learned from project-focused interventions can be amplified to generate broader, actionable knowledge and implement thematic strategies worldwide. “This is especially important for CIMMYT as we do exactly that, but often face different constraints depending on the local context.”

The use of a scaling perspective on each of these projects exposed important lessons on minimizing project dependencies. For example, though each project has invested considerably in both capacity and business development training, in all three case studies the large-scale adoption of recommended service provision models has been limited by a lack of finance and insufficient collaboration among the value chain actors to strengthen and support mechanization service provider entrepreneurs.

“While provision of market and spatial information helps local businesses target their interventions, local stakeholders are still dependent on the projects in terms of transitioning from project to market finance, facilitating collaboration along the value chain, and provision of leadership and advocacy to address issues at governance level,” Woltering explains. This, Van Loon adds, demonstrates a need for the inclusion of properly planned exit strategies from projects, as well as a degree of flexibility during the project development phase.

In all three regions, the supply of appropriate mechanization services is struggling to meet demand and few solutions have been found to support the transition from project to market finance. Continued capacity development is required at all stages of the value chain to ensure the provision of high-quality services and it has been suggested that incentivizing potential clients to access mechanization services and linking service providers with machinery dealers and mechanics might produce more satisfying results than simply supporting equipment purchases.

Read the full study: Scaling agricultural mechanization services in smallholder farming systems: Case studies from sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America. 2020. Van Loon, J., Woltering, L., Krupnik, T.J., Baudron, F., Boa, M., Govaerts, B. In: Agricultural Systems v. 180.

See more recent publications by CIMMYT researchers:

An R Package for Bayesian analysis of multi-environment and multi-trait multi-environment data for genome-based prediction. Montesinos-Lopez, O.A., Montesinos-Lopez, A., Luna-Vazquez, F.J., Toledo, F.H., Perez-Rodriguez, P., Lillemo, M., Crossa, J. In: G3: genes – genomes – genetics v. 9, no. 5, p. 1355-1369.
New deep learning genomic-based prediction model for multiple traits with binary, ordinal, and continuous phenotypes. Montesinos-Lopez, O.A., Martin-Vallejo, J., Crossa, J., Gianola, D., Hernandez Suárez, C.M., Montesinos-Lopez, A., JULIANA P., Singh, R.P. In: G3: genes – genomes – genetics v. 9, no. 5, p. 1545-1556.
QTL mapping for micronutrients concentration and yield component traits in a hexaploid wheat mapping population. Jia Liu, Bihua Wu, Singh, R.P., Velu, G. In: Journal of Cereal Science v.88, p. 57-64.
Climate Smart Agriculture practices improve soil organic carbon pools, biological properties and crop productivity in cereal-based systems of North-West India. 2019. Jat, H.S., Datta, A., Choudhary, M., Sharma, P.C., Yadav, A.K., Choudhary, V., Gathala, M.K., Jat, M.L., McDonald, A. In: Catena v. 181: 104059.
A cost-benefit analysis of climate-smart agriculture options in Southern Africa: balancing gender and technology. 2019. Mutenje, M., Farnworth, C.R., Stirling, C., Thierfelder, C., Mupangwa, W., Nyagumbo, I. In: Ecological Economics v.163, p. 126-137.
Yield and labor relations of sustainable intensification options for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. A meta-analysis. 2019. Dahlin, S., Rusinamhodzi, L. In: Agronomy for Sustainable Development v. 39, no. 3.
Divergence with gene flow is driven by local adaptation to temperature and soil phosphorus concentration in teosinte subspecies (Zea mays parviglumis and Zea mays mexicana). 2019. Aguirre-Liguori, J.A., Gaut, B.S., Jaramillo-Correa, J.P., Tenaillon, M.I., Montes Hernandez, S., García-Oliva, F., Hearne, S., Eguiarte, L.E. In: Molecular Ecology v. 28, no. 11, p. 2814-2830.
Tillage, crop establishment, residue management and herbicide applications for effective weed control in direct seeded rice of eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia . 2019. Jat, R.K., Singh, Ravi Gopal, Gupta, R.K., Gill, G., Chauhan, B.S., Pooniya, V. In: Crop Protection v. 123, p. 12-20.
Benefits to low-input agriculture. 2019. Reynolds, M.P., Braun, H.J. In: Nature Plants v. 5, p. 652-653.
Improving nutrition through biofortification: preharvest and postharvest technologies. 2019. Listman, G.M., Guzman, C., Palacios-Rojas, N., Pfeiffer, W.H., San Vicente, F.M., Velu, G. In: Cereal Foods World v. 64, no. 3.
Transcriptomics of host-specific interactions in natural populations of the parasitic plant purple witchweed (Striga hermonthica). 2019. Lopez, L., Bellis, E.S., Wafula, E., Hearne, S., Honaas, L., Ralph, P.E., Timko, M.P., Unachukwu, N., dePamphilis, C.W., Lasky, J.R. In: Weed Science v. 67, no. 4, p. 397-411.
Reduced response diversity does not negatively impact wheat climate resilience. 2019. Snowdon, R.J., Stahl, A., Wittkop, B., Friedt, W., Voss-Fels, K.P., Ordon, F., Frisch, M., Dreisigacker, S., Hearne, S., Bett, K.E., Cuthbert, R.D. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) v. 116, p. 10623-10624.
Understanding clients, providers and the institutional dimensions of irrigation services in developing countries: a study of water markets in Bangladesh. 2019. Mottaleb, K.A., Krupnik, T.J., Keil, A., Erenstein, O. In: Agricultural Water Management v. 222, p. 242-253.
15N Fertilizer recovery in different tillage-straw systems on a Vertisol in north-west Mexico. 2019. Grahmann, K., Dittert, K., Verhulst, N., Govaerts, B., Buerkert, A. In: Soil Use and Management v. 35, no. 3, p. 482-491.
Agricultural mechanization and reduced tillage: antagonism or synergy?. Debello, M. J., Baudron, F., Branka Krivokapic-Skoko, Erenstein, O. In: International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability v. 17, no. 3, p. 219-230.
Scaling – from “reaching many” to sustainable systems change at scale: a critical shift in mindset. 2019. Woltering, L., Fehlenberg, K., Gerard, B., Ubels, J., Cooley, L. In: Agricultural Systems v. 176, art. 102652.
Determinants of sorghum adoption and land allocation intensity in the smallholder sector of semi-arid Zimbabwe. Musara, J. P., Musemwa, L., Mutenje, M., Mushunje, A., Pfukwa, C. In: Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research v. 17, no. 1, art. e0105.
Genetic dissection of drought and heat-responsive agronomic traits in wheat. Long Li, Xinguo Mao, Jingyi Wang, Xiaoping Chang, Reynolds, M.P., Ruilian Jing In: Plant Cell and Environment v. 42, no. 9, p. 2540-2553.
Spending privately for education in Nepal. Who spends more on it and why?. Mottaleb, K.A., Rahut, D.B., Pallegedara, A. In: International Journal of Educational Development v. 69, p. 39-47.
Genotype x environment interaction of quality protein maize hybrids under contrasting management condition in Eastern and Southern Africa. 2019. Mebratu, A., Dagne Wegary Gissa, Mohammed, W., Chere, A.T., Amsal Tesfaye Tarekegne In: Crop Science v. 59, no. 4, p. 1576-1589.
Collaborative research on Conservation Agriculture in Bajio, Mexico: continuities and discontinuities of partnerships. Martinez-Cruz, T.E., Almekinders, C., Camacho Villa, T.C. In: International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability v. 17, no. 3, p. 243-256.
Conservation agriculture based sustainable intensification of basmati rice-wheat system in North-West India. 2019. Jat, H.S., Pardeep Kumar, Sutaliya, J.M., Satish Kumar, Choudhary, M., Singh, Y., Jat, M.L. In: Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science v. 65, no. 10, p. 1370-1386.
Gender and household energy choice using exogenous switching treatment regression: evidence from Bhutan. Aryal, J.P., Rahut, D.B., Mottaleb, K.A., Ali, A. In: Environmental Development v. 30, p. 61-75.
Weather shocks and spatial Market efficiency: evidence from Mozambique. 2019. Salazar, C.| Hailemariam Ayalew | Fisker, P. In: Journal of Development Studies v. 55, No. 9, p. 1967-1982.
Effects of Pakistan’s energy crisis on farm households. Ali, A., Rahut, D.B., Imtiaz, M. In: Utilities Policy v. 59, art. 100930.
Social inclusion increases with time for zero-tillage wheat in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains. Keil, A., Archisman Mitra, Srivastava, A., McDonald, A. In: World Development v. 123, art. 104582.

One-minute science: Jelle Van Loon explains mechanization for agriculture

Written by Mary Donovan on February 6, 2020. Posted in Videos.

Mechanization is a process of introducing technology or farm equipment to increase field efficiency. CIMMYT’s mechanization work is context-specific, to help farmers have access to the appropriate tools that are new, smart and ideal for their unique farming conditions.

Jelle Van Loon, CIMMYT mechanization specialist, explains how his team prototypes innovations that allow precision farming and supports different actors in the value chain from importers to policy-makers to create broader availability of farm equipment.

Farmers see a demonstration of how the two-wheel tractor functions. (Photo: Simret Yasabu/CIMMYT)

Leasing scheme helps farmers purchase small-scale agricultural machinery

Written by Rodrigo Ordóñez on January 27, 2020. Posted in Features.

A new small-scale agricultural machinery leasing scheme became operational in Amhara region, Ethiopia, in December 2019. The initiative offers farmers and group of farmers the opportunity to buy agricultural machineries with only 15-20% advance payment and the rest to be paid during a three-year period. Three farmers participated in the pilot phase of the project.

This initiative, led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the German Development Agency (GIZ), is one more step to expand small-scale agricultural mechanization in Ethiopia. CIMMYT and GIZ have explored this area of work since 2015, in collaboration with government and private partners.

Subsistence modes of production, shortage of quality agricultural inputs and farm machinery services are some of the impediments to expand agricultural productivity and enhance food security in Ethiopia.

Small-scale agricultural mechanization, in the Ethiopian context, improves the quality of field operations. For example, farmers are benefiting from row planting, optimal plant population, more precise seed and fertilizer placement, efficient utilization of soil moisture during planting window. The timing of operations is also very important — delays in planting could have a serious negative impact on yield, and harvesting and threshing must be done at a time when there is no labor shortages. Small-scale mechanization drastically saves time and labor compared to conventional crop establishment systems, and reduces yield loss at the time of harvesting and threshing.

Farmers walk by irrigated potato fields during a field day to learn about the use of small-scale agricultural mechanization. (Photo: Simret Yasabu/CIMMYT)

Despite these advantages, the adoption rate has been too low. A survey conducted by IFPRI and Ethiopia’s Central Statistical Agency in 2015 shows that only 9% of farmers in Ethiopia use machine power to plough their land, harvest their output, or thresh their crops. A significant number of farmers continues to use conventional farming systems, using animal and human labor.

Ephrem Tadesse, small-scale mechanization project agribusiness specialist with CIMMYT, said that most of the land holdings in Ethiopia are small and fragmented, and thus not suitable for large agricultural machineries.

CIMMYT and its partners introduced the two-wheel tractor and tested it in different parts of the country. One of the challenges has been the issue of access to finance to buy tractors and their accessories, because of their relatively high costs for individual farmers to buy with their own cash, noted Ephrem.

CIMMYT and GIZ have been working with selected microfinance institutes to pilot a machinery leasing scheme for small-scale agricultural mechanization. For several years, they have partnered with Waliya Capital Goods Finance Business Share in the Amhara region and with Oromia Capital Goods Lease Finance Business Share Company in the Oromia region. In December 2019, three farmers in the Machakel district of the Amhara region were the first ones to receive their machines through this scheme.

Farmers in the district of Machakel participate in a field day to learn about the use of small-scale agricultural mechanization. (Photo: Simret Yasabu/CIMMYT)

Tesfaw Workneh is the father of one of the beneficiaries. “This is great opportunity for farmers like my son to access small-scale agricultural machinery,” said Tesfaw. His son only paid 30,000 Ethiopian birr, about $1,000 — that is 20% of the total cost to own the different agricultural implements. Now, he is able to provide service to other farmers and get income, he explained.

Several types of machinery are being considered for this leasing scheme, using the two wheel-tractor as the source of power: planters, harvesters/reapers, threshers/shellers, trailers and water pumps.

For farmers like Alemayew Ewnetu, this kind of machinery is a novelty that makes farming easier. “Today, my eyes have seen miracles. This is my first time seeing such machineries doing everything in a few minutes. We have always relayed on ourselves and the animals. Now I am considering selling some of my animals to buy the implements,” said Alemayew.

Demelsah Ynew, Deputy Director of Waliya Capital Goods Finance Business Share, noted that his company was established six years ago to provide services in the manufacturing sector. However, after a discussion with CIMMYT and GIZ, the company agreed to extend its services to the agriculture sector. When revising our role, he noted, we considered the limitations farmers have in adopting technologies and the vast opportunity presented in the agricultural sector. Demelsah explained that to benefit from the leasing scheme, farmers will have to fulfill a few minimal criteria, including being residents of the area and saving 15-20% of the total cost.

Local irrigation service providers in southern Bangladesh demonstrate the use of a two-wheeled tractor to power an axial flow pump to provide fuel-efficient surface water irrigation. (Photo: Tim Krupnik/CIMMYT)

New publications: A study of water markets in Bangladesh

Written by Emma Orchardson on July 30, 2019. Posted in Publications. 3 Comments on New publications: A study of water markets in Bangladesh

Domestic rice and wheat production in Bangladesh has more than doubled in the last 30 years, despite declining per capita arable land. The fact that the country is now almost self-sufficient in staple food production is due in large part to successful and rapid adoption of modern, high-yielding crop varieties. This has been widely documented, but less attention has been paid to the contribution of small-scale irrigation systems, whose proliferation has enabled double rice cropping and a competitive market system in which farmers can purchase irrigation services from private pump owners at affordable rates.

However, excess groundwater abstraction in areas of high shallow tube-well density and increased fuel costs for pumping have called into question the sustainability of Bangladesh’s groundwater irrigation economy. Cost-saving agronomic methods are called for, alongside aligned policies, markets, and farmers’ incentives.

A recent study by researchers at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) examines the different institutions and water-pricing methods for irrigation services that have emerged in Bangladesh, each of which varies in their incentive structure for water conservation, and the level of economic risk involved for farmers and service providers.

Using primary data collected from 139 irrigation service providers and 556 client-farmers, the authors assessed the structure of irrigation service types as well as the associated market and institutional dimensions. They found that competition between pump owners, social capital, and social relationship between of pump owners and client farmers, significantly influence the structure of irrigation services and irrigation water pricing methods. Greater competition between pump owners, for instance, increases the likelihood of pay-per-hour services while reducing that of crop sharing arrangements.

Based on these and other findings, authors made policy recommendations for enhancing irrigation services and sustainability in Bangladesh. As Bangladesh is already highly successful in terms of the conventional irrigation system, the authors urge taking it to the next level for sustainability and efficiency.

Currently Bangladesh’s irrigation system is based on centrifugal pumps and diesel engines. The authors suggest scaling out the energy efficient axial flow pump, and the alternate wetting and drying system for water conservation and irrigation efficiency. They also recommend further investment in rural electrification to facilitate the use of electric motors, which can reduce air pollution by curbing dependency on diesel engines.

Read the full article:
“Understanding clients, providers and the institutional dimensions of irrigation services in developing countries: A study of water markets in Bangladesh” in Agricultural Water Management, Volume 222, 1 August 2019, pages 242-253.

This study was made possible through the support provided by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA). Additional support was provided by the CGIAR Research Programs on Maize (MAIZE) and Wheat (WHEAT).

Read more recent publications by CIMMYT researchers:

A spatial framework for ex-ante impact assessment of agricultural technologies. 2019. Andrade, J.F., Rattalino Edreira, J.I., Farrow, A., Loon, M.P. van., Craufurd, P., Rurinda, J., Shamie Zingore, Chamberlin, J., Claessens, L., Adewopo, J., Ittersum, M.K. van, Cassman, K.G., Grassini, P. In: Global Food Security v. 20, p. 72-81.
Assessing genetic diversity to breed competitive biofortified wheat with enhanced grain ZN and FE concentrations. 2019. Velu, G., Crespo-Herrera, L.A., Guzman, C., Huerta-Espino, J., Payne, T.S., Singh, R.P. In: Frontiers in Plant Science v. 9, art. 1971.
Genome-wide association mapping and genomic prediction analyses reveal the genetic architecture of grain yield and flowering time under drought and heat stress conditions in maize. 2019. Yibing Yuan, Cairns, J.E., Babu, R., Gowda, M., Makumbi, D., Magorokosho, C., Ao Zhang, Yubo Liu, Nan Wang, Zhuanfang Hao, San Vicente, F.M., Olsen, M., Prasanna, B.M., Yanli Lu, Zhang, X. In: Plant Breeding v. 9, art. 1919.
Diversifying conservation agriculture and conventional tillage cropping systems to improve the wellbeing of smallholder farmers in Malawi. 2019. TerAvest, D., Wandschneider, P.R., Thierfelder, C., Reganold, J.P. In: Agricultural Systems v. 171, p. 23-35.
Biofortified maize can improve quality protein intakes among young children in southern Ethiopia. 2019. Gunaratna, N.S., Moges, D., De Groote, H. Nutrients v. 11, no. 1, art. 192.

A woman operates a precision spreader during a demonstration for a farmer group in Guleriya MCP, Bardiya, in coordination with the Suahaara nutrition project. (Photo: Salin Acharya/CIMMYT)

Precision spreader for fertilizer set to change the agriculture scene in Nepal

Written by Rodrigo Ordóñez on July 19, 2019. Posted in News.

A man demonstrates the precision spreader to farmers in Bardiya, Nepal, in collaboration with the Janaekata cooperative and the local government. (Photo: Hari Prasad Acharya/CIMMYT)

Smallholder farmers in Nepal tend to apply fertilizer by hand, spreading it as they walk through the field. Under this practice, fertilizer is dispersed randomly and is therefore unevenly distributed among all the seedlings. A recently introduced method, however, helps farmers spread fertilizer in a more uniform, faster and easier way.

The precision spreader is a hand-operated device that ensures an even distribution of fertilizer and is easy to operate. This technology is endorsed by the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA), a project led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) which helps Nepalese farmers adapt measures that are efficient, effective and resilient to the impacts of climate change.

In addition to more consistent distribution, the precision spreader regulates the exact amount of fertilizer required and helps the farmer cover a considerable area with limited movement. This technology has been proven to require less time and effort than the traditional method of broadcasting by hand.

Considering the potential benefits, the CSISA team introduced farmers in Nepal to the precision spreader through training sessions followed by demonstrations of its use. They took place in wheat fields in Bansgadhi, Barbardiya and Duduwa, in Lumbini province, in collaboration with multipurpose cooperative Janaekata and the local governments. Through these sessions, conducted in 45 different sites, more than 650 farmers had a chance to familiarize themselves with the precision spreader, and most of them took a keen interest in incorporating the device into their cropping management practices.

Perhaps the most prominent reason why the precision spreader sparked such interest is that women can easily use it. Most men in rural areas have migrated to the city or abroad in hopes of higher income, so work in the fields has been inadvertently transferred to women. Since Nepal is a predominantly conservative patriarchal society, women have not yet become comfortable and familiarized with all farming practices, especially operating heavy agricultural machinery. However, as expressed by women themselves, the precision spreader is highly convenient to use. Its use could help ease women into the agriculture scene of Nepal and consequently reduce farming drudgery.

Healthier crops, healthier people

Nestled between China and India, Nepal predominantly relies on agriculture for employment. With the majority of its population engaged in the agricultural sector, the country still struggles to produce an adequate food supply for its people, resulting in depressed rural economies, increased malnutrition and widespread hunger.

Sustainable intensification, therefore, is necessary to increase the overall yield and to accelerate agricultural development.

Better distribution of fertilizer in the fields results in a higher chance of healthier crops, which are the source of better nutrition.

A wider use of a seemingly small technology like the precision spreader would not only reduce hardships in farming, but it would also help farmers become more resilient towards the natural and economic adversities they face.

The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) is a regional project in Bangladesh, India and Nepal that was established in 2009 with the goal of benefiting more than 8 million farmers by the end of 2020. Funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, CSISA is led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and implemented jointly with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).

Halima Begum operates her two-wheel tractor, equipped with a self-starter device. (Photo: Mostafa Kamrul Hasan/CIMMYT)

Cranking, a thing of the past

Written by Rodrigo Ordóñez on July 10, 2019. Posted in Features. 1 Comment on Cranking, a thing of the past

Halima Begum wanted to increase her income by providing mechanization services to other farmers in Bangladesh’s Chuadanga district, but she was limited by the level of physical effort required. Starting the engine of her tractor was difficult and embarrassing — cranking it required a lot of strength and she had to rely on others to do it for her. She was also afraid she would get injured, like other local service providers.

Women in rural areas of Bangladesh are often hesitant to work in the fields. Social norms, limited mobility, physical exertion, lack of time and other constraints can cause aspiring female entrepreneurs to step back, despite the prospect of higher income. The few women like Halima who do step out of their comfort zone and follow their dreams often have to overcome the physical effort required to operate these machines.

Starting the tractor is a daunting task on its own and the possibility of having to do it multiple times a day adds to the reluctance of ownership.

To make manual cranking a thing of the past for Bangladeshi women entrepreneurs, and to encourage others, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), through the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia-Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI), is supporting small businesses who manufacture and sell affordable mechanical self-starter attachments for two-wheel tractors.

The self-starter is a simple spring-loaded device mounted over the old crank handle socket, which allows users to start the engine with the flick of a lever.

For women like Begum, manually starting a tractor was a difficult task that is now gone forever.

“I used to struggle quite a lot before, but now I can easily start the machine, thanks to this highly convenient self-starter,” Begum said.

The self-starter reduces the risk of accidents and coaxes hesitant youth and women to become entrepreneurs in the agricultural mechanization service industry.

CIMMYT is supporting businesses like Janata Engineering, which imports self-starter devices and markets them among local service providers in the district of Sorojgonj, Chuadanga district. The project team worked with the owner, Md. Ole Ullah, to organize field demonstrations for local service providers, showing how to use and maintain the self-starter device.

The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia-Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI) is led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The project focuses on upstream market interventions in Bangladesh, ensuring technologies are reliably available in local markets and supported by an extensive value chain.

Women and youth find profitable business pathways through small-scale mechanization

Written by Shiela Chikulo on June 28, 2019. Posted in News.

Mechanization demonstration during a field visit to Makonde, Zimbabwe, as part of the FACASI Phase 2 final review meeting. Photo: Shiela Chikulo/CIMMYT

African farmers have ten times fewer mechanized tools per farm area than farmers in other developing regions, according to the Malabo Panel’s mechanization report. For the past six years, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funded Farm Mechanization and Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Intensification (FACASI) project has explored ways to address poor access to appropriate mechanization solutions, which is costing smallholders a lot in lost productivity.

“One of the key outcomes of the FACASI initiative has been to present women and youth with pathways into diverse profitable income generating businesses using small mechanization,” says Alice Woodhead, professor in rural economies at the University of Southern Queensland in Australia. Woodhead shared her impressions following a field visit to Makonde, in northwestern Zimbabwe, as part of the FACASI Phase 2 final review meeting held in May. Almost 40 public and private sector project partners from Zimbabwe and Ethiopia attended the event in Harare as well as ACIAR representatives.

Farm machinery: women entrepreneurs thrive on two wheels

Agatha Dzvengwe and Marianne Jaji shared their business experience as two-wheel tractor (2WT) service providers in Makonde. The 2WT, which can be used for multiple purposes from transporting, planting, fertilizer application and shelling, allows them to plant efficiently and provides additional income through hiring out their tractors to neighboring farmers. For instance, during the 2018/19 season, Dzvengwe used the Fitarelli planter to plant ten hectares of maize, two hectares of sugar beans and five hectares of soybeans. Because of the planter’s efficiency, she had enough extra time to hire out planting services to neighboring farmers, earning $100 for one hectare of maize, and double for the planting of soybean or sugar beans.

Marianne Jaji provides 2WT based shelling services, which she says generates steady income for her household, enabling her to contribute to important household decisions. Despite the 2018/19 season being characterized by drought, Jaji was confident that she could still earn a decent income from neighboring farmers engaging the 2WT harvesting services. Other women service providers reported relief from labor drudgery and empowerment. “We have been freed from the burden of toiling in the field. Now that I own a 2WT, the society respects me more.”

“In a business dominated by men, women like Agatha and Marianne can become successful entrepreneurs, providing crucial farming services for the community such as shelling, planting and transport,” explains Bertha Tandayi, a FACASI research assistant at the University of Zimbabwe, where she studies the adoption of 2WT based technologies by women entrepreneurs in Makonde and Nyanga districts.

Small-scale mechanization has higher adoption rates in areas where the most profitable services are provided, such as shelling. The benefits for entrepreneurs and the community are visible and include the creation of employment, home renovations, asset accumulation, livestock rearing, borehole drilling and the purchasing of agricultural inputs.

Sustainable shelling enterprise for Mwanga youth group

Since establishing their enterprise in 2016 following training under the FACASI project, the Mwanga youth group is still going strong in Makonde. During a live demonstration of the medium sized sheller, Masimba Mawire remarked that the shelling business has provided steady and reliable income for the group. Brothers Shepherd and Pinnot Karwizi added that the group has gained from further training in maintenance, facilitated through the FACASI project. “It is evident that the youths have found a way to work as a business team, giving them purpose and to realize aspirations of being a business owner and not just an employee,” said Woodhead.

Of the services provided through the 2WT technologies, shelling services are in greatest demand, as this simple technology significantly reduces the time spent on shelling maize cobs. A medium sized sheller, for example, produces between five and six tons of shelled maize grain per day, over ten times more than manual shelling.

The combined benefits of income, reduced drudgery and high efficiency of the 2WT based technologies have transformed the lives of the youths and women services providers. Confident in their future, they plan to expand their business portfolios, looking at value addition options such as post-harvest processing of other crops.

Breaking Ground: Mechanization expert Jelle Van Loon goes as far as creativity allows

Written by Emma Orchardson on May 29, 2019. Posted in Features.

In November 2015, Jelle Van Loon set off for Zimbabwe, with a cross-section plan in his backpack. He spent two weeks working with a group of blacksmiths, searching Harare for parts and assembling machines in a bid to test whether the construction plans developed by his team were indeed designed to be built anywhere. “We might have had to change a few things, but three working machines were built, proving the accessibility of the construction plans and inherent replicability of the designs.”

From studying agronomic engineering and crop modelling in Belgium to working on supply chain issues in Peru, Jelle Van Loon amassed a range of experience before joining the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in 2012. Soon after joining, he began shaping up a team to work on mechanization issues.

“First and foremost I’m an agricultural engineer; I just happen to have a high affinity with mechanics,” he says. “I think my advantage is having a broad knowledge, being able to understand agronomy as well as mechanical engineering, and having studied agricultural economics in developing countries.”

This background has served him well in a role where a hands-on, multidisciplinary approach is crucial.

“Mechanization doesn’t necessarily mean building or creating more machines,” Van Loon explains, “but rather introducing technology and farm equipment to farmers to facilitate their work, as well as supporting them on how and when to use it to increase production efficiency.” Many people also assume that mechanization only involves motorized equipment such as tractors, he adds, when in fact any tool, even simple hand tools, which facilitate farmer work and alleviate drudgery fit into this concept.

CIMMYT’s mechanization team carries out research and development on a range of farm equipment. Team members draw and design prototypes, test them in the field and develop protocols for experiments. Combining agronomy and mechanics, they work to create machinery that supports farmers in their day-to-day work at each stage of the crop cycle: from land preparation, planting and fertilization, to harvest and shelling. They also support the generation of new business models which can deliver appropriate machinery to farmers working within resilient agri-food systems.

Welcome to the machine

One of the biggest challenges is changing the way farmers work. Many are resistant to investing in new machinery because they are unsure of how to use it, and simply cannot afford the risk of failure. As such, the team also places an emphasis on extension work. They have set up centers where growers can learn about the equipment and rent out some model machines. They also build the capacity of service providers through training on functional engineering for blacksmiths and manufacturers, and market intelligence for small sector entrepreneurs.

“It’s beyond just designing the machine. It’s really about taking products out to the field, seeing what works well and where, and then thinking about how we can get these products into the hands of farmers.”

Building on the work being carried out in Mexico, Van Loon is always looking at how other regions can also benefit from the mechanization unit and opportunities for collaborating with colleagues and partners in Africa and Asia. Equipment developed for farmers in Africa or Latin America could be adapted for use in South Asia or vice versa, but this requires a solid understanding of each region’s unique opportunities and challenges.

He points to the example of the two-wheel tractor engine, developed in China and popularized in Asia during the 1980s, when famine and the loss of draft animals prompted governments to subsidize that particular piece of equipment at the right time. The tractor is ubiquitous in countries such as Bangladesh, but it is unclear whether the same success is replicable in Africa and Latin America, neither of which has the same conditions, second-hand markets or import facilities. “We’re trying to learn from cross-regional efforts to scale up. Being able to understand different areas helps us find the weakest links and create more enabling environments,” Van Loon explains.

He and his team are continuously developing and evaluating new ideas, trialing ways of embedding mechatronics or sensory-based technology into their machines to help capture data and ease farmer workloads. Finding a way to keep these low-cost and convenient for farmer use may be a challenge, but positive testimonials from farmers keep him excited about the possibilities.

“I think it’s worthwhile to follow through on wild new ideas and see what happens because when it works out, the positive impact and change we help create is all that matters,” Van Loon notes.

“And more so, the cool thing about working in mechanization is we can go as far as our creativity lets us.”

Jelle Van Loon demonstrates machinery for visitors at CIMMYT's global headquarters in Mexico. (Photo: Gerardo Mejía/CIMMYT) — Jelle Van Loon demonstrates machinery for visitors at CIMMYT’s global headquarters in Mexico. (Photo: Gerardo Mejía/CIMMYT)

Zim to get 1 670 tractors

Written by Mary Donovan on May 21, 2019. Posted in In the media.

Fact sheet debunking labor and mechanization myths presented in Zimbabwe

Written by Matthew O'Leary on May 15, 2019. Posted in News.

A new fact sheet debunking myths about agricultural labor and mechanization has been presented at the Farm Mechanization and Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Intensification (FACASI) end of project review meeting in Harare, Zimbabwe.

The fact sheet, based on a recent study by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), shows African farming households are far more dependent on hire labor markets, and much more inclined to hire mechanization services, than previously assumed.

Download the fact sheet “Debunking myths about agricultural labor and mechanization in Africa”.

FACASI review meeting

Over 50 agriculture for development specialists are gathering from May 11 to 17, 2019, to review the FACASI project’s progress. The project investigated how small-scale mechanization, such as two-wheel tractors with attachments, can be used to improve farm power balance, reduce labor drudgery, and promote sustainable intensification in Eastern and Southern Africa. The project also built the capacity of farmers to use size-appropriate machinery and trained hire service providers, to increase the equitable availability of mechanization services.

At the review meeting, participants will focus on widening the availability and use of small mechanization through commercialization, social inclusion, policy implications, and how to best use research outputs. They will also get to see two-wheel tractors in action and meet project farmers in visits to different districts around Zimbabwe.

In attendance are representatives from the project’s funder, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), and partners including Ethiopia’s Ministry of Agriculture, the University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe’s Ministry of Lands Agriculture Water Climate and Rural Resettlement, the University of Southern Queensland, service providers and training centers from Zimbabwe, and private sector representatives from Zimbabwe and Ethiopia.

For further information on CIMMYT’s agricultural mechanization work in Africa:

FACASI knowledge platform

Appropriate mechanization for African smallholders: A pathway to sustainable intensification and rural development.

Training manual greases the wheels for mechanization entrepreneurs

African youth find entrepreneurial opportunity in agricultural mechanization

Research busts common myths about agricultural labor in Africa, suggests a shift in mechanization policy

Research busts common myths about agricultural labor in Africa, suggests a shift in mechanization policy

Written by Matthew O'Leary on April 24, 2019. Posted in Features.

New farm-level research into agricultural labor in eastern and southern Africa found that a lack of farm power is costing smallholders in productivity, demonstrating a far higher demand for mechanization than commonly thought.

The study identified African farming households are far more dependent on labor markets than previously assumed, and thus far more inclined to hire mechanization services. The findings call on governments in the region to create an enabling environment to promote appropriate mechanization for small-scale farmers, said lead researcher Frédéric Baudron, systems agronomist with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT).

“The high number of households already hiring farm power challenges common myths that suggest smallholder farms depends almost entirely on labor as it’s provided by family members. The demand for mechanized farm power is there, the supply isn’t and that is the issue,” he explained.

Unlike studies before it, the research avoided country-level indicators, such as the share of fallow land or population density, to assess the need for mechanized farming operations. Instead, it gathered detailed labor data from households in eight sites dominated by smallholder agriculture across Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe.

The study demonstrated that households that invest in agricultural power improve food production.

“To increase farm productivity, profitability, and sustainability, African farmers need greater access to affordable farm machinery to optimize processes,” Baudron said.

Small-scale mechanization appropriately sized for small farms — such as technologies based on two-wheel tractors, including direct planters — represents a shift away from conventional mechanization strategies dependent on large machines, leading to land consolidation and the disappearance of otherwise-productive small farms, Baudron said.

“Governments in the region need to create an enabling environment for mechanization supply chains to develop,” he explained. “This includes the creation of mechanization policy instruments, such as subsidies and training, that further respond to smallholder demand.”

Training and supporting hire service providers has shown to improve the equitable access to mechanization, which reduces labor drudgery and promotes sustainable intensification practices.

The research also presented a more nuanced analysis of the interrelations between male and female labor than usually presented in academic studies. It found women provide less labor than men and hired labor and suggests reducing drudgery among women relies upon understanding men’s chores and improving both as a two-way process.

In all sites studied rural women found that the priority for mechanization should be given to crop establishment, which would benefit both men and women. Land preparation and planting are tasks commonly performed by males, but their optimization influences weeding and postharvest tasks, primarily completed by women.

“These interconnections between men’s and women’s tasks have rarely been mentioned before, and should be tapped into for gender-sensitive interventions,” said Baudron.

Florence Ochieng harvests green maize on her 105-acre family farm near Kitale, Kenya. (Photo: P. Lowe/CIMMYT)

Five persistent myths related to labor in African smallholder agriculture, challenged

Myth 1: Labor is abundant and cheap; thus, farm power does not limit agricultural productivity

Reality: It is commonly believed farm power does not limit agricultural productivity because there is an abundant amount of cheap labor options in southern and eastern Africa. However, the farm-level study showed a lack of farm power is holding back productivity and illustrated a much higher demand for mechanization than macroeconomic analyses, pointing to a problem of access rather than a lack of demand. It revealed the importance of labor or other sources of farm power in explaining the variability of land productivity. It also found that investments in farm power at the farm level improved land productivity.

Myth 2: Most of the labor is provided by women

Reality: Across the eight sites studied, women were found to provide just 7 to 35% of the labor invested in household farming, far less than the often-claimed percentage of 60 to 80%. Overall, the farm-level study found women tended to provide less labor for farming than men and hired labor. Even when considering female-headed households alone, women were only the main providers of labor in half of the sites — hired labor or children were we the main providers of labor.

The largest share of female labor tended to be invested in activities characterized by high drudgery, weeding and postharvest in particular, although this varied across sites. Weeding was also the main task performed by men in four of the sites studied. In fact, the study revealed that weeding tended to be a shared task between men, women, children, and hired labor, and not as dominated by female labor as commonly thought.

Myth 3: Agricultural tasks are carried out almost entirely by family labor

Reality: The study showed the majority of farming households in the region hire labor to complete agricultural tasks. Farm power hired included human labor, draught animals and, to a much lesser extent, tractor power.

This challenges the common view of Africa being dominated by family farms which, according to FAO, “rely mainly on the labor of family members.” African farming households may be far more dependent on labor markets than commonly assumed, and thus far more inclined to hire mechanization services.

Myth 4: Consolidation, by enabling “efficient” mechanization, would have a positive impact on agricultural productivity

Reality: The study found the maximum land productivity a farm can achieve decreased with increasing farm area in the majority of sites. This supports the so-called “negative farm size–productivity relationship” which has been reported by other studies in eastern and southern Africa.

Mechanization should not be a cause of consolidation — it should rather be driven by economic development. The concept of “appropriate mechanization” embraced by CIMMYT argues that machines should adapt to farm size, and not the opposite. Recent research and development initiatives taking place in the region point to the potential of using small single-axle tractors for agricultural mechanization in areas dominated by small and fragmented fields.

Myth 5: African agriculture is characterized by a wide gender gap

Reality: Research across all eight sites provided little evidence of a consistent gender gap. Land productivity was found not to differ significantly between male-headed households and female-headed households.

The research suggests the limited evidence of any substantial gender gap may stem from the fact that resources are highly inadequate across all sites, limiting large inequalities to manifest. This is not to deny the usefulness of current interventions targeting women-headed households, but rather to highlight the importance of preserving, strengthening, and tapping on social mechanisms in rural communities.

Read the complete study:
‘A farm-level assessment of labor and mechanization in Eastern and Southern Africa’

For more information on appropriate-sized agricultural mechanization in Africa

Cobs & Spikes podcast: Hello Tractor and agricultural innovation

Written by Rodrigo Ordóñez on January 4, 2019. Posted in Podcasts.

For small-scale farmers, mechanization and other appropriate technologies have a big impact in agricultural production and yield. However, they might lack the resources to buy these tools. Hello Tractor is trying to improve this.

Dubbed the “Uber for the farm”, the company’s app easily allows tractor owners to rent their machinery to farmers and includes features that can help enhance a tractor owner’s business and operations. In this episode, we’re talking to Martha Haile, Chief Operations Officer at Hello Tractor, about the company’s success and social innovation in agriculture.

You can listen to our podcast here, or subscribe on iTunes, Spotify, Stitcher, SoundCloud, or Google Play.

Bangladesh farmer Raju Sarder sits on his recently acquired reaper. (Photo: CIMMYT/Md. Ikram Hossain)

The saving grace of a hefty investment

Written by on December 18, 2018. Posted in Features.

A man in his early 20s walked the winding roads of Sajiara village, Dumuria upazila, Khulna District in Bangladesh. His head hanging low, he noticed darkness slowly descending and then looked up to see an old farmer wrapping up his own daily activities. With traditional tools in hand, the farmer looked exhausted. The young man, Raju Sarder, considered that there had to be a better way to farm to alleviate his drudgery and that of others in the community.

Determined to act, Raju set out to meet Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) officials the very next day. They informed him about the Mechanization and Irrigation project of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA MI). They also introduced him to the project’s most popular technologies, namely the power tiller operated seeder, reaper and axial flow pumps, all of which reduce labor costs and increase farming efficiency.

Raju found the reaper to be the most interesting and relevant for his work, and contacted a CSISA representative to acquire one.

The first challenge he encountered was the cost — the equivalent of $1,970 — which as a small-scale farmer he could not afford. CSISA MI field staff assured him that his ambitions were not nipped in the bud and guided him in obtaining a government subsidy and a loan of $1,070 from TMSS, one of CSISA MI’s micro financing partners. Following operator and maintenance training from CSISA MI, Raju began providing reaping services to local smallholder rice and wheat farmers.

He noticed immediately that he did not have to exert himself as much as before but actually gained time for leisure and his production costs dwindled. Most remarkably, for reaping 24 hectares Raju generated a profit of $1,806; a staggering 15 times greater than what he could obtain using traditional, manual methods and enough to pay back his loan in the first season.

“There was a time when I was unsure whether I would be able to afford my next meal,” said Raju, “but it’s all different now because profits are pouring in thanks to the reaper.”

As a result of the project and farmers’ interest, field labor in Raju’s community is also being transformed. Gone are the days when farmers toiled from dawn to dusk bending and squatting to cut the rice and wheat with rustic sickles. Laborious traditional methods are being replaced by modern and effective mechanization. Through projects such as CSISA MI, CIMMYT is helping farmers like Raju to become young entrepreneurs with a bright future. Once poor laborers disaffected and treated badly in their own society, these youths now walk with dignity and pride as significant contributors to local economic development.

CSISA MI is a partnership involving the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and iDE, a non-governmental organization that fosters farmers’ entrepreneurial development, with funding from USAID under the Feed the Future initiative.