This article uses research into the organic food market in France to show that biological factors can play an important part in influencing the structure and organization of markets. The authors use this to point out that while many studies of market agencing discuss in detail the role played by social and material agents, biological agents should be an equally important part of such research.
Over the last four decades, there has been considerable research into Actor-Network Theory (ANT), which looks at the effect of various agents on markets. However, in the majority of cases, the agents discussed have been material (for example, shopping trolleys) or social (human habits or economic motives). The research which forms the basis of this article was originally carried out as a study of how French organic-produce collectives tried to influence markets to suit their needs and ideals. On reviewing the data, it appeared to the authors that there were additional agents affecting their marketing, which derived from biological factors. Unlike the material and social agents, farmers were only able to control these biological factors with great difficulty, if at all. For example, the inability to use chemical inputs on crops meant that crop rotation over a multi-year period was essential; however, wholesalersâ traditional structures expected a farmer to supply the same produce in the same quantity year after year. In cases such as this, altered supply chain arrangements needed to be negotiated between the suppliers and the wholesalers.
The authors made four sets of observations showing the market-shaping effect of biological agents.
Measures taken by established organic farmers to avoid price competition from new market entrants â the well-established farmers had chosen to start growing crops which required more expertise, time or equipment (such as Belgian endives or onions), rather than less complex standard crops such as potatoes.
Biological processes which necessitate altering the traditional market production and supply structures â for example, the need for crop rotation as mentioned above.
Natural agents will affect crop yields and introduce variability in quality and quantity, which the market needs to allow for. The authors give examples of pests, viral infections and weather as agents that affect all farming, but in the case of organic farming are particularly troublesome.
After harvest, produce will naturally experience ripening/aging, and then degradation in quality. Standard industrial ways of controlling these biological processes utilize methods and agents that are unacceptable or even harmful when dealing with organic produce, for instance, spraying with chemicals.
Following these observations, the authors make a series of propositions and suggest research questions which could result from them, for instance:
How does the action of biological entities affect the establishment of market norms/the way prices are set?
How do representations of the market take account of biological processes?
In conclusion, the authors demonstrate how the effect of biological agents on markets is already inextricably intertwined with the effects of material and social agents. Future research, to be truly comprehensive, needs to look in equal depth at all other possible influences on the market.
Scientists, researchers and stakeholders from around the world gathered at the global sorghum conference from June 5-9, 2023, in Montpellier, France, to discuss the latest developments in sorghum research, innovation, challenges and sustainable practices in the face of climate change.
The Dryland Crops Program (DCP) partners pose for a group photo at the Sorghum Conference (Photo: Marion Aluoch/CIMMYT)
Participating as a sponsor, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) demonstrated valuable insights and technological advances in a variety of sessions. Two CIMMYT representatives and six National Agricultural Research Extension Systems (NARES) partners, presented findings, addressing critical topics such as adaptation genetics and genomics, climate and environmental change, sorghum yield optimization techniques and the development of new sorghum products for human consumption.
CIMMYT has initiated a crop improvement program, known as the Dryland Crop Program (DCP), focused on sorghum, millets (pearl and finger millet), chickpea, pigeon pea and groundnut. The program is in the process of establishing a CGIAR-NARES network with stakeholders form 17 countries in Africa to collaboratively create, develop and implement a crop improvement network for these crops in Eastern, Southern, Western and Central Africa. This cooperative approach will enable CIMMYT and the network to identify suitable products for specific market segments, establish joint breeding pipelines, conduct on-farm germplasm testing and ultimately release and scale up superior seed varieties. This will ultimately lead to improving the quality and yield of these dryland crops, ensuring food security and promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
Nebie Baloue from CIMMYT Senegal providing information about the Dryland Crops Program (DCP) program to visitors at the CIMMYT’s booth (Photo: Marion Aluoch/CIMMYT)
Abhishek Rathore presented âUnderstanding sorghum race level diversity and development of sorghum genomic resources by using deep learning-based variant calling approach,â which examines sorghum’s racial diversity and the creation of genomic resources. Using a deep learning-based variant, researchers identified race-specific genetic signatures and gained a comprehensive understanding of sorghum race structure and domestication processes. These discoveries pave the way for more targeted breeding programs and the identification of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) markers.
Baloua Nebie presented a poster on âCrop improvement network approach to co-develop market required products and strengthen partnersâ capacities in Africa.â He indicated the dryland crops improvement programs are in collaboration with CGIAR-NARES programs, with CIMMYT acting as a facilitator within the network to deliver varieties more quickly and efficiently in response to market demand. The network is comprised of 10 NARES in Western and Central Africa, seven NARES in Eastern and Southern Africa, as well as farmer organizations and seed companies. In addition to their national roles, NARES partners will contribute to regional activities based on their comparative advantages; these roles include co-sharing of regional pipelines development, early to late testing of breeding lines, product release and scaling. Through consultative meetings and program evaluation, these activities will be aligned with the regional and country-specific market segments identified by stakeholders.
Alex Zongo of the Institut de l’Environnement et des Recherches Agricoles (INERA) / CNRST – Burkina Faso, a NARES partner, presented research analyzing the macro-institutional determinants of the adoption of new sorghum/millet varieties. He shed light on the obstacles associated with the adoption of new sorghum/millet varieties. The research uncovered the economic and social incentives that prevent their scaling through a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Mr. Jeffrey Ehlers Program Officer at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation engages in conversation with Nebie Baloua from CIMMYT Senegal at the CIMMYT’s booth (Photo: Marion Aluoch/CIMMYT)
With climate change posing a significant threat to global agriculture, NARES partners involved in regional networks have delved into the pressing issues of enhancing sorghum production’s climate resilience. Rekiya Abdoulmalik, from the Institute of Agriculture Research (IAR) in Nigeria, presented a poster on the threats to sorghum cultivation in Nigeria posed by current security issues and potential climate change effects. The study evaluated 14 varieties of dwarf sorghum in multiple locations. The analysis identified stable, high-yielding varieties with the potential to contribute to Nigeria’s food security in the face of shifting environmental conditions.
Other NARES partners presenting posters included Henry Nzioka from Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research (KALRO), who made a case for the biological control of the striga weed in sorghum. Citing technological advancements, he illustrated how the integration of climate-smart weed management technologies can lead to the control of the weed.
Another presentation by Charles Bett of KALRO focused on mechanization in the sorghum value chain, which revealed that investments in machinery and traction power have a positive and significant effect on sorghum yield. The findings recommend a shift in policy to help farmers afford small-scale machinery and gradually replace ox power with affordable machinery.
Assitan Daou from the Institut dâEconomie Rurale (IER) in Mali emphasized the suitability of sorghum as a crop for growing populations in varying climates and the significance of an agroecological transition for adaptation to climate change. His poster presentation centered on sorghum cropping systems under rainfed conditions, which aligned with the conference’s goals of increasing crop productivity, adapting to climate variations and bolstering the resilience of small-scale farmers.
The conference, according to Chris Ojiewo, Strategic Partnerships and Seed Systems lead for the Dryland Crops Program at CIMMYT, played a crucial role in sharing the latest sorghum research findings and their outcomes. âThe conference provided an important platform for communicating advances in research and associated outputs and outcomes on sorghum as an important cereal grain contributing to food, nutrition and income securities and overall resilience in agrifood systems especially to smallholder farmers in areas prone to drought stress and more so in the face of changing and variable climates,” said Ojiewo.
Nebie Baloua from CIMMYT Senegal engaging with visitors at the CIMMYT’s stand (Photo: Marion Aluoch/CIMMYT)
CIMMYT also set up an exhibition booth that provided an overview of the various activities undertaken as a part of its dryland crop programs and CGIAR-NARES improvement network. Senior officials of donor organizations consulted CIMMYT staff regarding approaches to dryland crops improvements, key achievements and the possibility of new partnerships.
The next 21st Century Global Sorghum Conference will be hosted by Texas University in Lubbock in September 2026.
âThis event is a first of its kind. Here you have the fertilizer industry, which is relatively conservative, and yet there are speakers such as Mostafa Terrab of the OCP Group or Svein Tore Holsether of Yara who are pushing this future agenda,â said Bruce Campbell, Director of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
âIf I was from the fertilizer industry, I would really wake up, as perhaps is happening with some companies. If you look at the airlines industry, you see some super visionary players and others who are not. I feel that there could be players in this group who could be as visionary: looking at cutting down the energy inputs into fertilizer production, working together with governments to reform subsidies that promote over-fertilization, working towards precision fertilizer application. If the fertilizer industry wants to gain the trust of a more and more discerning public, then they need to show climate leadership,â Campbell remarked.
Early plant vigor can be improved through the use of direct seeders, which place fertilizer close to the seed. (Photo: Wasim Iftikar / CIMMYT)
The right time and place
Although fertilizer use revolutionized agriculture and allowed farmers to grow better crops on less land, plant nutrients are often vilified because of the negative environmental impact caused by their improper use.
For this reason, experts often speak of the 4R stewardship principles of fertilizer: right fertilizer source, at the right rate, at the right time, and in the right place.
âThe industry needs solid science to back up agricultural technology solutions in the realms of both nutrient and water management. Regarding the right placement, right time and the right quantity of fertilizer, mechanization solutions â such as direct seeders, which place fertilizer close to the seed â can really increase nutrient use efficiency and improve plant early vigor. Together with a wide range of partners, CIMMYT has been using these across smallholder systems of Asia, Africa and Latin America,â highlighted Martin Kropff, Director General of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), during one of the panel discussions.
In order to scale up the most relevant scientific findings and extension efforts, the focus should be on using available fertilizers better. This goes hand in hand with better management of organic matter and soils. There is a human element too: farmersâ efficiency could be improved with better advice especially targeted at extension offices or service providers.
At the event, David Nabarro challenged the fertilizer industry to take the lead in reforming the broken food system. (Photo: Marta Millere/CIMMYT)
S for sustainability
In order to identify the missing link of sustainability, just a day before the launch of the forum, the International Fertilizer Association (IFA) created a new Scientific Panel on Responsible Plant Nutrition. This group of international experts will provide objective knowledge and assessments for the fertilizer industry and other stakeholders to develop a more responsible plant nutrition system.
Being part of the panel will give CIMMYT the opportunity to better link up with the fertilizer industry and contribute to improved fertilizer use in term of profitability, yield stability and risk, accessibility but also â from an environmental perspective â minimize the footprint of fertilizer through better agronomic practices and management.
The High Level Forum on Plant Nutrition took place on November 18-20, 2019, in Versailles, France.
Annie Tremblay, who was representing the Netherlands, gave a presentation on agriculture in the Netherlands. She emphasized the most commonly traded commodities between the Netherlands and Mexico and said she sees Mexico as a “sleeping giant” in the flower-trading world.
Following Tremblay’s presentation, Martin Kropff talked about how CIMMYT works globally to improve livelihoods. As Kropff explained CIMMYT’s biofortification work, he stressed that in a perfect world people would be able to diversify their diets and get nutrients from all kinds of plants, but that many people CIMMYT serves are living on less than two dollars a day. “This is not the solution, but it is a solution.”
Bram Govaerts gave a presentation about the work Sustainable Intensification Program in Latin America (SIP-LatAm) is doing and discussed the importance of public-private partnerships to the MasAgro program. This underscored Kropff’s points about the importance of public-private partnerships to CIMMYT and the importance of corporate social responsibility.
John R. Porter on the top floor of the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) building in Paris. Porter was honored as a Knight of the Order of Agricultural Merit at a ceremony on 1 March 2016 at the French Embassy in Denmark. Photo: John R. Porter
John R. Porter of The University of Copenhagen, the Natural Research Institute of the University of Greenwich, UK, and member of the WHEAT Independent Steering Committee, was granted Knight of the French Order of Agriculture Merit at a ceremony on 1 March.
The Order of Agricultural Merit is awarded to those that have made extraordinary contributions to agriculture via research or practice. The Order, which was established in 1883 by Franceâs Ministry of Agriculture, is one of the most important recognitions awarded in the country.
To become a knight, a person must be at least 30 years of age and have dedicated at least 15 years of service to the agricultural community, covering both developed and developing country farming.
âFrance has had an extremely important role in the development of agriculture and food production in Europe and the world. The production of food serves one of the most basic human needs, and this award and its history recognizes that fact,â said Porter in an acceptance speech at the French Embassy in Denmark. âI was extremely honored and surprised when I learned that I would be bestowed with this honor.â
Porter is best known for his pioneering work in the development of crop simulation models that are now regarded as being central to guiding research identifying new crop phenotypes, the impacts of and adaptation to climate change and carbon mitigation to the benefit of agriculture globally. He has also made major contributions to agriculture via his multi-disciplinary work in the response to arable crops, energy crops and complex agro-ecosystems to their environment with an emphasis on climate change, agronomy and ecosystem services.
Focusing on agriculture in the developing world, Porter took the initiative to bring the secretariat and hub of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), to his university in Copenhagen. He has also collaborated with European pasta manufacturers to develop methods to identify high quality sources of durum wheat prior to harvest by using a combination of models and remote sensing technologies.
Porter has published more than 140 papers in reviewed journals and has won three international prizes for his research and teaching. Apart from serving on the WHEAT Independent Steering Committee, he was appointed by the French Ministry of Agriculture and serves as a member of the Science Council of the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) and previously served as the president of the European Society for Agronomy.
Most recently, Porter was the lead author of a critically important chapter for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on food production systems and food security for the IPCC 5th Assessment Report, which was the scientific bedrock of the COP21 agreement, signed December 2015.
Congratulations to John R. Porter on this prestigious award!
âThe prosperous still have a strong carbon footprint. And, the worldâs billions at the bottom of the development ladder are seeking space to grow,â said Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his opening speech at the COP21 climate talks in Paris, where world leaders recently gathered to come to an agreement that will slow and eventually stop global emissions of greenhouse gases that threaten the survivability of our planet.
Reconciliation of the right to develop and environmental protection must move beyond global dialogue, and be put into practice in every community struggling with the effects of environmental degradation and poverty.
Seventy percent of the âbillions at the bottomâ Modi refers to live in rural areas. A majority of these people suffer from land degradation â the long-term loss of an ecosystemâs services â due to climate change in combination with unsustainable crop and livestock management practices.
Like the INDCs, landscape approaches may offer a compromise to achieve food production, natural resource conservation, and livelihood security goals, according to the reportâs chapter. âLandscape configurations exist not only to minimize tradeoffs between conservation and food security and nutrition, but also to create synergies between these two goals,â argue Baudron and his fellow authors.
âCultivated fields are not green deserts but may be part of the habitat of several species of importance for conservation,â says Baudron. âIn many human-dominated ecosystems, some species can be dependent on agricultural practices such as extensive grazing in Europe or shifting cultivation in tropical forests. Conversely, biodiversity may contribute to crop and livestock productivity through the ecosystem services it provides, such as pollination or pest control.â
âOngoing research conducted by CIMMYT and its partners in southern Ethiopiaâs maize- and wheat-based farming systems suggests that maintaining trees and forest patches in production landscapes is not only good for the environment and biodiversity, but contributes to the maintenance of farming system productivity and resilience,â according to Baudron. âFarms embedded in diverse landscape mosaics also produce much more diverse and nutritious food.â
Landscape approaches are also closely associated with the concept of food sovereignty, which promotes the right of people to define their own food production and consumption at the local, national, and global level. Community level engagement with local food and agricultural systems also creates an ideal setting to engage communities for more sustainable management of food and agricultural systems.
âUltimately, this is about acknowledging diversity as a fundamental property in the design of more sustainable farming systems,â says Baudron. âThe question is: what configurations are optimal in different contexts? Answering this question will require a much higher level of partnership between conservation organizations and agricultural agencies.â
Precision levelers are climate-smart machines equipped with laser-guided drag buckets to level fields so water flows evenly into soil, rather than running off or collecting in uneven land. This allows much more efficient water use and saves energy through reduced irrigation pumping, compared to traditional land leveling which uses animal-powered scrapers and boards or tractors. It also facilitates uniformity in seed placement and reduces the loss of fertilizer from runoff, raising yields. (Photo: CIMMYT)
As world leaders meet in Paris this week to agree on greenhouse gas emission targets, we in the field of agricultural research have a powerful contribution to make, by producing both robust estimates of the possible effects of climate change on food security, and realistic assessments of the options available or that could be developed to reduce agricultureâs contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.
Agriculture is estimated to be responsible for about a fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions, and this share is increasing most rapidly in many developing countries; it may even increase as fossil fuels become scarcer and phased out in other sectors.
The solution being put forward today is climate-smart agriculture (CSA), which involves three components: adaptation, mitigation, and increased productivity. Adaptation is essential to cope with the impacts that cannot be avoided and to maintain and increase the global food supply in the face of resource constraints; mitigation can lessen but not prevent future climate changes.
Though CSA has been held up as an answer to the challenges presented by climate change, some would argue that it is no more than a set of agricultural best practices. Indeed, this is what lies at the heart of the approach.
In addition to making agriculture more efficient and resilient, the overall purpose remains to sustainably increase farm productivity and profitability for farmers. This is why over the last few years we have begun talking about the âtriple winâ of CSA: enhanced food security, adaptation, and mitigation. But those who dismiss CSA as mere best practice ignore the value of seeing through the climate change lens, and guiding research to respond to expected future challenges.
To begin with, crop performance simulation and modeling, in combination with experimentation, has an important role to play in developing CSA strategies for future climates.
In a publication titled âAdapting maize production to climate change in sub-Saharan Africa,â several CIMMYT scientists concluded that temperatures in sub-Saharan Africa will likely rise by 2.1°C by 2050 based on 19 climate change projections. This is anticipated to have an extreme impact for farmers in many environments. Because it takes a long time to develop and then deploy adaptation strategies on a large scale, they warned, there can be no delay in our work.
Our insights into the causes and impacts of climate change lead us to important research questions. For example, how can farmers adopt practices that reduce the greenhouse gas footprint of agriculture while improving yield and resilience?
Colleagues at CIMMYT have challenged the idea that the practice of no-till agriculture (which does not disturb the soil and allows organic matter to accumulate) contributes significantly to carbon sequestration. I think it is important that we, as scientists, explore the truth and be realistic about where opportunities for mitigation in agriculture lie, despite our desire to present major solutions. It is also important to take action where we can have the greatest impact, for example by improving the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use.
Nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture have a climate change potential almost 300 times greater than carbon dioxide, and account for about 7% of the total greenhouse gas emissions of China. Improved nutrient management could reduce agricultural greenhouse gas emissions by the equivalent of 325 Mt of carbon dioxide in 2030. Overall, supply-side efficiency measures could reduce total agricultural emissions by 30%.
Some practices, such as laser land leveling, fall into both the adaptation and mitigation categories. Preparing the land in this way increases yields while reducing irrigation costs, the amount of water used, nutrients leached into the environment, and emissions from diesel-powered irrigation pumps.
Findings such as this offer real hope of reducing the severity of climate change in the future, and help us build a case for more investment in critical areas of agricultural research.
For climate-smart agriculture, the challenge of feeding more people and reducing emissions and environmental impact is not a contradiction but a synergy. We are improving our ability to predict the challenges of climate change, and proving that it is possible to greatly reduce agricultural emissions and contribute to global emission goals.
To face challenges such as climate change, we need high quality multi-disciplinary science combined with approaches to address problems at the complex systems level. Since my involvement in early large-scale studies, such as Modeling the Impact of Climate Change on Rice Production in Asia (CABI/IRRI, 1993), I am pleased to see that so much progress has been made in this regard and encouraged that our research is contributing to greater awareness of this vital issue and solutions to address it.
CIMMYT, in partnership with the Instituto de Investigação Agronómica (IIA), the Angolan national agricultural research institute, is helping the country shift from using maize landraces to locally adapted materials.
Angola is rebuilding its infrastructure after a prolonged civil war that slowed down agricultural production. During the war, farmers could not access improved maize seed and relied on landraces. âAfter the war, they started shifting from the landraces to open-pollinated varieties (OPVs),â explained Peter Setimela, CIMMYT seed systems specialist. âFive years ago, there were no improved maize seeds in Angola. Now, we have some good OPVs and hybrids.â
Pivot irrigation at a seed production farm in Angola. Both Kambondo and Matogrosso farms use pivot irrigation; this frees the farms from dependence on rain for seed production.
The country has been importing improved maize varieties from Brazil and France, though not without problems. âThey discovered that some of these varieties were hampered by diseases such as gray leaf spot, maize streak virus and northern leaf blight,â said CIMMYT breeder Cosmos Magorokosho. Working in partnership with IIA breeders, CIMMYT scientists have been testing materials that are locally adapted, some of which are now being produced by local seed companies. Last month, a multidisciplinary team from CIMMYT and IIA, led by the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) Project Leader Tsedeke Abate, went on a field tour in Angola.
The team visited seed production farms in Kwanza Sul, demonstrations and on-farm and on-station trials at the IIA Chianga experimental station in Huambo to evaluate drought-tolerant maize varieties being grown and tested in the country. The team, including CIMMYT and IIA breeding, communications, seed systems and socioeconomics staff, visited a community seed production farm managed by Cooperativa Faca Tudo Pelo Tempo (âdo everything on timeâ in Portuguese). The farmerâs cooperative produces rain-fed basic seed for the OPV maize varieties ZM309, ZM521 and ZM523, with technical support from IIA breeder Dibanzilua Nginamau. The cooperative is an umbrella body for 30 farmer groups with 1,250 members, including 600 women, according to Nginamau.
Participants stand in front of 50 hectares of the CIMMYT hybrid CZH03030 and a rainbow at Kambondo farm in Kwanza Sul, Angola.
The team visited smallholder farmer Dominga Ngueve, who planted varieties for demonstration on her farm near the Chianga station. âI prefer ZM309 because it matures early and I am able to get [maize for] food earlier,â Ngueve said. âWhen improved seed is unavailable, I buy local varieties from other farmers.â The smallholder farmer practices the crop rotation of planting maize during the long season and beans during the low season. She also grows cassava and potatoes. âOur food crop is maize; if you sell it, you create hunger,â said Ngueve, explaining the importance of maize in her community.
CIMMYT is helping Angola improve this important crop. âAngola has great potential for advancing agriculture,â Abate said, citing the countryâs arable land and water resources. CIMMYT is using its germplasm resources to help public and private sector partners, such as SEDIAC, Matogrosso and Kambondo farms, that have recently ventured into seed production in Angola. CIMMYT is also contributing to capacity building by training breeders and technicians from the national program and seed companies.
Visitors at the DTMA stand during the SEDIAC field day in Kwanza Sul, Angola.
Angola is producing ZM523 on 560 hectares at Kambondo and Matogrosso farms with technical support from DTMA. An expected 2,400 tons of certified seed will be available for use by local farmers in the coming season. These two companies are well-positioned to produce certified seed through irrigation, as they each have six units of pivot irrigation that enable them to continue production even when the rains are erratic.
Kambondo farm has already produced nine tons of CZH03030 and has planted 50 hectares of the same variety for grain production. Abate commended SEDIAC for hosting the field day. âIt is an opportunity for researchers from the national agriculture research system to network with all the agricultural stakeholders in Angola,â he said. The field day was also attended by three traditional leaders from the local community.
Through the collaborative work of IIA, CIMMYT, seed companies and cooperatives to strengthen seed systems in Angola, âfarmers can increase their food security and livelihoods by taking up droughttolerant varieties,â said CIMMYT socioeconomist Rodney Lunduka.
